Esoteric Teachings in Ancient Greece — Plato & Aristotle (2024)

In the context of Ancient Greek philosophy, the terms “esoteric” and “exoteric” carried nuanced meanings related to the dissemination of knowledge and the modes of education within philosophical circles.

The distinction between esoteric and exoteric teachings was not solely based on secrecy but rather on the nature of their accessibility and audience. Within philosophical schools, there existed a distinction: the “esoteric” teachings were reserved for an inner circle, developed and shared among a select group of thinkers within the confines of the institution. This designation, derived from the prefix “eso-” signifying what is internal or offscreen, denoted knowledge shared within the enclosed community of the school. Conversely, the “exoteric” teachings referred to knowledge that was publicly disseminated, shared through speeches, or published for a broader audience outside the immediate circle of the philosophical school. The prefix “exo-” denoted what is external or outside, indicating teachings meant for a wider public beyond the confines of the institution. Aristotle notably used the term “exoteric speeches”, possibly to refer to the lectures or speeches he delivered outside the precincts of his school. These were likely intended for a broader audience beyond his immediate students and fellow philosophers, distinguishing them from the more specialized and in-depth discussions that occurred within the philosophical circle. The use of the terms “esoteric” and “exoteric” in relation to Aristotle’s teachings remains a subject of scholarly debate, particularly considering the absence of direct usage of “esoteric” by Aristotle himself. Instead, references to his teachings suggest a distinction in the content and method of his instruction, indicating a potential division between different types of teachings. Reports by ancient scholars like Aulus Gellius depict Aristotle’s teaching style, suggesting a separation between his public lectures on subjects like politics, rhetoric, and ethics — designated as exoteric, meant for broader audiences — and his more specialized, morning teachings termed “akroatika” or acroamatics. These specialized teachings were likely focused on natural philosophy and logic, imparted during walks with his select group of students. While the term “exoteric” might encompass teachings for the public sphere, some scholars propose an alternative interpretation. For Aristotle, “exoteric” might have also referred to content concerning an extracosmic reality, transcending the mundane and touching upon superior, abstract concepts beyond the realm of everyday life. This contrasted with what he termed “enkyklioi logoi,” knowledge dealing with intracosmic physics relevant to everyday experiences. Strabo and Plutarch’s accounts further contribute to the understanding of Aristotle’s teachings. They suggest that texts within the Lyceum, Aristotle’s school, were circulated internally and maintained a level of control in their dissemination. These “esoteric” texts, believed to contain more specialized and profound philosophical content, were not immediately published but were later compiled and made available through the efforts of Andronicus of Rhodes, highlighting a distinction between the more guarded internal teachings and those meant for wider consumption. The distinction between the oral teachings of Plato — often considered more esoteric — and his written works or public lectures remains a topic of considerable interest among scholars, particularly within the Tübingen School. This school of thought highlights the alleged esoteric content of Plato’s intramural teachings, emphasizing their focus on First Principles, distinct from the more apparent teachings conveyed in his dialogues and public lectures. Hegel’s commentary on this distinction sheds light on the nature of philosophical communication. According to Hegel, expressing an external object requires less effort compared to conveying an idea, which inherently involves a level of depth and complexity. Philosophical ideas, therefore, possess an intrinsic esoteric quality, suggesting that the true depth of philosophical teachings often transcends mere external or exoteric representation.

Plato’s influence on the perception of esotericism in Western thought is profound. His philosophy, deeply rooted in discourses that purportedly revealed visions of the Absolute and truth within mythology and the rites of mystery religions, played a pivotal role in shaping the Western understanding of esotericism. Kocku von Stuckrad aptly notes that esoteric ontology and anthropology owe much of their existence and development to Platonic philosophy. In Plato’s dialogues, there are indications of a connection to cultic secrecy and the notion of withholding or concealing certain knowledge. Expressions like ἀπορρήτων (aporrhéton), an Ancient Greek term denoting the prohibition of revealing a secret, are used in contexts related to mysteries. For instance, in Theaetetus 152c, Plato employs a strategy of concealment to illustrate this aspect of secrecy in his teachings. This tendency to allude to cultic secrecy and the use of concealment strategies within Plato’s dialogues contributes to the perception of an esoteric dimension in his teachings. It suggests a deliberate choice to veil certain knowledge or concepts, inviting deeper contemplation and interpretation from earnest seekers of truth, thereby underscoring the potential esoteric undercurrents within Plato’s philosophical framework.

The Neoplatonists played a pivotal role in the deepening exploration of uncovering a hidden truth beneath the surface of teachings, myths, and texts, contributing significantly to the development of hermeneutics and allegorical exegesis. This pursuit involved interpreting works from Plato, Homer, Orpheus, and other sources, seeking a concealed or esoteric meaning underlying their apparent content. Within this milieu, figures like Plutarch and Numenius furthered the justification and exploration of theological esotericism. Plutarch, for instance, delved into elucidating the existence of a deeper, hidden layer of truths, while Numenius authored the work “On the Secrets of Plato” (Peri tôn para Platoni aporrhèta), aiming to unveil the concealed teachings of Plato.

The Hellenistic era witnessed the development of the classical distinction between exoteric and esoteric, likely stemming from the dichotomy of “exôtikos” and “esôtikos.” This dichotomy gained prominence, partly fueled by criticisms from various currents such as Patristics. In the works of authors like Lucian, Galen, and Clement of Alexandria, it became apparent that philosophers commonly maintained secret writings and teachings, highlighting a parallel between secrecy and an exclusive elite.